Christiaan Hamaker Prize – Winning Thesis: Humor and Academic Learning

The Effect of Humor on Academic Learning

Irene DiGiorgio

University of Amsterdam

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a disruptive effect on academic learning, causing declines in student self-reported motivation and achievement at all scholastic levels. This literature review investigates the effect of humour on academic learning, examining its role as a possible learning-enhancing tool. The first section studies the effect of humour on student negative emotions. The second section examines the effect of humour on student motivation. Finally, the third section investigates the effect of humour on student information retention. The conclusion of this literature review shows a mixed but overall positive effect of humour on academic learning, which illustrates the need for further research on the topic to possibly inform future effective teaching methodologies.  

The Effect of Humour on Academic Learning

As the second-year mark of the initial wave of COVID-19 pandemic recently passed, academic normalcy still remains out of reach for most students worldwide. The distress caused by rolling school closures, navigating new online learning formats, and completing schoolwork in new and distracting environments had severe implications for students’ academic performance: a report investigating 5.4 million of U.S. students across the first two years of the pandemic revealed a decline in math and reading achievement scores more severe than those found following any other recent natural disaster (Kuhfeld et al., 2022). Even more concerning, rates of psychological distress and low motivation in the classroom in late 2021 remained higher than pre-pandemic rates for both school-aged children and university students (CDC, 2022; Corpus et al. 2022). It is therefore both urgent and valuable to investigate pedagogical strategies to help students maintaining positive affect, learning motivation, and lasting content retention in academic learning. Academic learning can be defined as the acquisition of novel information, behaviours, or abilities in the scholastic environment (APA, n.d.). For the scope of this review, it concerns schools of all levels.

Humour – the mental faculty of expressing or appreciating the ludicrous – could prove to be a useful teaching strategy to promote positive outcomes in academic learning (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). The Instructional Humour Processing (IHP) theory, for instance, supports this idea and suggests that humour can enhance or impair the learning process by interacting with three learning sub-constructs: a) emotions, b) motivation, c) information retention. Specifically, if the learner considers a humorous message to be appropriate, negative affect is reduced, which in turn enhances motivation and information retention. Conversely, when the learner considers humour to be inappropriate, this will create negative affect and the learner will be unmotivated and less able (i.e. distracted) to retain information (Wanzer et al., 2010). Moreover, previous research has also investigated the effect of humour on the three learning sub-constructs taken into account by the IHP theory. For instance, previous studies have shown that humour production relieves emotional stress after laboratory-induced stressful situations (Newman & Stone, 1996). Other research has shown that the use of humour in the workplace is correlated with increased employee motivation (Crawford, 1994, as cited in Avolio et al., 1999). Finally, other research has shown that information contained in humorous advertisements leads to higher information retention than information contained in non-humorous advertisements (Cline & Kellaris, 2007).  

In summary, the IHP theory predicts that humour can either enhance or impair the learning process via its interaction with the learner’s emotions, motivation and information retention capabilities. Moreover, previous research suggests that humour can reduce negative affect in lab-induced stressful situations, is associated with higher motivation in the workplace, and leads to increased recall of information in advertisements. However, while this evidence suggests that humour has a positive effect on learning, it is not yet clear if such changes apply to learning in an academic setting. This generalisation is problematic since academic learning has unique characteristics when compared with non-academic-related learning processes. These, for instance, concern: modalities of learning (classroom-based, online …), types of assessment, and unique student stressors. Based on the above, the research question of this literature review is whether there is an effect of humour on academic learning. The main hypothesis is that humour has a positive effect on academic learning.

To answer the main question, this literature review will first analyse the effect of humour on student negative emotions, secondly the effect of humour on student motivation, and finally the effect of humour on student information retention. These sub-constructs are drawn from the IHP theory. Negative emotions can be defined as emotional reactions aimed to express a negative affect. (APA, n.d.). Motivation can be conceptualised as the willingness to exert effort in pursuit of an outcome (APA, n.d.). Finally, information retention is the process of storing information in long-term memory so that it can be readily retrieved (Springer Link, 2021). 

The Effect of Humour on Student Negative Emotions

In order to investigate the effect of humour on academic learning, this literature review will first discuss the effect of humour on student negative emotions. Previous research has shown that humour can relieve emotional stress following laboratory-induced stressful situations (Newman & Stone, 1996). The finding that humour can relieve stress – a negative emotion – is relevant for learning. For instance, the IHP theory also suggests that an appropriate humorous message can reduce negative affect in the perceiver, enhancing motivation and information retention (Wanzer et al., 2010). Based on previous research and the IHP theory, the sub-hypothesis for this section is that humour has a negative effect on student negative emotions. 

Ford et al. (2012) investigated the effect of humour on student negative emotions, specifically on state anxiety. Data was collected from a sample of 74 undergraduate university students who were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: cartoon, poem, or control. Participants were asked to read 10 humorous cartoons in the cartoon condition and 10 non-humorous poems in the poem condition. In the control condition, participants were simply invited to perform the second experimental task. This consisted of a math test comprising 20 items taken from the quantitative section of SAT tests, which participants in all conditions completed. State anxiety was assessed by administering the State Anxiety Inventory pre and post-intervention (adapted from Spielberger, 1983). The tool contained eight items presenting common state anxiety symptoms and each item was rated on a 7-point Likert scale indicating the perceived severity of the given symptom at the moment of testing. Higher scores indicated higher state anxiety. Results showed that post-test State Anxiety Inventory for the humour condition lowered compared to the pre-intervention scores. However, no difference between pre and post-test scores was found for the poem and control condition. From the study it was concluded that humour has a negative effect on state anxiety, and therefore on negative emotions.

The abovementioned study investigates anxiety as a negative emotion. While such a choice is justified by the fact that anxiety is negatively related to student performance on classroom examinations (Mazzone et al., 2007), another negative emotion known to impact student performance is disgust. Disgust is especially relevant in medicine and biology education and it is often reported during dissections (Holstermann et al., 2009) and encounters with living animals in the classroom and during field trips (Wüst-Ackermann et al., 2018). Research has shown that perceived disgust is negatively correlated with motivation and academic achievement in students (Randler et al., 2013) and is, therefore, an important negative emotion to minimise to allow learning enhancement. The next study investigates whether humour decreases disgust in the classroom.

Randler et al. (2016) investigated the effect of humour on student negative emotions, specifically on disgust. A total of 114 biology teaching students were recruited to take part in a trout dissection task and were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: a humour condition and a control condition. Participants in the humour condition were shown a 10-minutes-long video of humorous sketches related to fishing, while participants in the control condition were shown a 10-minutes-long informative video on the life-cycle of trouts. Both groups then completed a guided trout dissection task. Disgust was measured by administering the Trout Disgust Scale pre and post-intervention (Randler et al., 2012). The self-report questionnaire consisted of eight items presenting self-perceptions of different facets of disgust regarding trout dissection (smell, feel of the trout…). The items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale. Zero indicated low agreement with the statement and 5 high agreement. Higher scores indicated greater perceived disgust. Results showed that post-test Trout Disgust Scale scores for the humour condition were lower compared to pre-test scores, while no difference was found for the control condition. It can be therefore concluded that humour has a negative effect on disgust, and therefore on negative emotions.  

In this subsection it can be concluded that humour has a negative effect on student negative emotions. In the first study it was found that humour has a negative effect on state anxiety. In the second study it was found that humour has a negative effect on disgust. The sub-conclusion is in line with the hypothesis formulated for this sub-section and with the IHP theory.

The abovementioned studies analyse the effect of humour only on student emotions. However, while a reduction of negative emotions might contribute to learning enhancement, the IHP theory posits it as only the first stage of the affective and cognitive-based interaction that leads to improved learning. To generalise the effect of humour on academic learning, the next subsection will investigate the effect of humour on motivation, another key learning sub-construct.

The Effect of Humour on Student Motivation

In order to investigate the influence of humour on academic learning, this section will discuss the effect of humour on student motivation. Previous research has reported that the use of humour in organisational settings is correlated with increased employee motivation (Crawford, 1994, as cited in Avolio et al., 1999). The IHP theory states that an appropriate humorous message can, via the creation of a positive emotional state, lead to increased motivation in the perceiver (Wanzer et al., 2010). Based on previous research and the IHP theory, therefore, the sub-hypothesis of this section is that humour has a positive effect on student motivation. 

Piaw (2012) researched the effect of humour on student motivation. Data was collected from 80 undergraduate students who were randomly assigned to either a treatment or a control condition. Participants were enrolled in a research methods course spanning the course of three days and consisting of daily lectures and home-assigned reading material. In the control condition, the reading material consisted of a text-only version, while in the treatment condition the text was integrated with nine content-related humorous cartoons. Student motivation was measured pre-test and post-test by the Reading Motivation Questionnaire (RMQ; Wigfield et al., 1996). The instrument consisted of 54 items measuring core reading motivation components. Each item was rated on a 5-point Likert scale (from 1 “Very different from me” to 5 “A lot like me”). A higher score indicated a higher reading motivation. Results revealed that post-test RMQ scores for the treatment condition were higher than pre-intervention scores, while no change was found for the control condition. It was concluded that humour has a positive effect on motivation.

The abovementioned study operationalises motivation by the RMQ, which assesses four motivation sub-constructs but fails to control for a potentially confounding variable: initial participants’ interest in the subject domain. Research shows that initial interest in a subject is a significant predictor of intrinsic motivation for learning in undergraduates (Bye et al., 2007) and impacts how students approach a subject-specific task. For this reason, the next study will address this limitation by reviewing the effect of humour on student motivation and taking into consideration initial interest in the subject as a moderating variable. 

Matarazzo et al. (2010) studied the effect of humour on motivation, investigating whether this is moderated by initial interest in the subject. Data was collected from a sample of 172 undergraduates students randomly assigned to either a humour or a control condition. All participants were taught a novel mental calculus technique by self-studying digital learning material. The learning material consisted of written instructions and two test problems. Participants in the control condition received non-humorous instructions and test problems, while those in the humorous condition received the same content phrased humorously (e.g. “What did our ancestors do without the ability to multiply large numbers at the press of a few buttons? It is horrifying to imagine, but—believe it or not—they got by, and they multiplied their little hearts out.”). Before testing, initial interest in the subject was assessed by a 6-item scale measuring participants’ interest in math (Durik & Harackiewicz, 2007). After testing, motivation was measured by a 5-item self-report questionnaire assessing participants’ interest in the new multiplication technique (adapted from Durik & Harackiewicz, 2007). The answers for both questionnaires were scored from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 7 (“strongly agree”) on a 7-points Likert scale. Higher results indicated higher rates of initial interest in the subject and motivation respectively. Results showed that participants with low initial individual interest in math reported higher task interest if they were in the humorous condition than in the control condition, while the opposite pattern emerged for participants with high initial interest. It can be concluded that humour leads to higher motivation for students low in initial subject interest, but it decreases it for students already interested in the subject. Humour has therefore a mixed effect on motivation.

In this subsection it can be concluded that humour has an inconclusive effect on student motivation. In the first study it was found that humour has a positive effect on student motivation. In the second study it was found that there is a mixed effect of humour on motivation, that is, a positive effect is found only for a specific student population (i.e. students with low pre-test subject interest). The sub-conclusion of this section is partially in line with the IHP theory and with the hypothesis formulated for this sub-section.

The studies abovementioned only analyse the effect of humour on student motivation. While motivation seems to contribute to learning enhancement, the IHP theory posits it as only the second stage of the affective and cognitive-based interaction that leads to improved learning. To generalise the effect of humour on learning, the next subsection will investigate the effect of humour on information retention, another key learning sub-construct.

The Effect of Humour on Student Information Retention

In order to investigate the effect of humour on academic learning, it is useful to focus on its effects on student information retention. Previous research has shown that information contained in humorous advertisements leads to higher information retention than information contained in non-humorous advertisements (Cline & Kellaris, 2007). The IHP theory states that an appropriate humorous message creates positive affect in the perceiver, enhancing motivation and information retention (Wanzer et al., 2010). Based on previous research and the IHP theory, the sub-hypothesis is that humour has a positive effect on student information retention.

Çelik and Gündoğdu (2016) investigated the effect of humour on student information retention. Sixty ninth-grade students were randomly assigned to either a humour condition or a control condition. Participants in both conditions were enrolled in an information technology course consisting of one weekly 2-hour-long lesson taking place over seven weeks. Lessons in both conditions covered the same topics at the same time. Lessons in the humour condition were taught with the support of study sheets containing content-related humorous cartoons, while lessons in the control condition were delivered with traditional lecturing methods. Information retention was assessed post-test by a 40-multiple-choice-questions achievement test covering the course’s content. Results revealed that the scores of the achievement test were higher for the humour condition than for the control condition. It was concluded that humour has a positive effect on information retention.

The abovementioned study operationalised information retention by a multiple-choice question test. While this type of test is commonly used in academic examinations, open-ended questions are also utilised. The two types of exam methods require different information retention processes: multiple-choice questions require the recognition of the correct answer. This involves memory recognition, the ability to identify information as having been encountered previously (APA, n.d.). Open-ended questions require the recalling of information. This involves recall memory, transferring prior learning to current consciousness (APA, n.d.; Laehman & Field, 1965). It is important therefore to study the effect of humour on both recognition and recall memory to understand the effect of humour on information retention. The next study will address this difference by studying the effect of humour on recognition and recall memory.

Suzuki et al. (2014) studied the effect of humour on information retention, specifically on recognition and recall memory. One hundred and sixty-five undergraduate university students were randomly assigned to two conditions: humour or control. Participants were shown a pre-recorded video psychology lecture on helping behaviour. In the humour condition, four sub-topics of the lecture were explained and then accompanied by humorous “Mr. Bean” sketches portraying helping behaviours. In the control condition, the same sub-topics were accompanied by non-humorous videos of people engaging in helping behaviours. Subjects in both conditions were provided the same amount of verbal explanation. Finally, memory recognition and memory recall were assessed through a 7-item memory test for both conditions. Three open-ended items assessed recall memory performance, while four multiple-choice items assessed recognition memory performance. Results showed that while no differences were found in the open-ended questions scores between humour and control conditions, multiple-choice questions scores were higher in the humour than in the control condition. In other words, humorous explanations improved recognition memory and therefore performance in multiple-choice questions, but not recall memory and performance in open-ended questions. This concludes that humour has a mixed effect on information retention.

In this subsection it can be concluded that humour has a mixed effect on student information retention. In the first study it was found that humour has a positive effect on student information retention. In the second study it was found that there is a mixed effect of humour on information retention, that is, humour has a positive effect only on memory recognition and performance on multiple-choice-questions-based exams. The sub-conclusion of this section is partially in line with the IHP theory and with the hypothesis formulated for this sub-section.

Conclusions and Discussions

The main conclusion drawn from this literature review is that humour has overall a mixed effect on academic learning. In the first sub-section it was found that humour has a negative effect on student negative emotion. In the second sub-section it was found that humour has a mixed effect on student motivation. In the third sub-section it was found that humour has a mixed effect on student information retention. Support was found for one sub-hypothesis and partially for two sub-hypothesis. Partial support was also found for the IHP theory. Rather than disproving the theory, these inconclusive findings shed light on the need for further study on moderating variables in the IHP theory: for instance, this review showed that initial subject interest and examination typology are moderating variables for the model. Such findings reflect the provisional nature of the IHP theory: although it has been widely recognized as a useful exploratory theory (Banas et al., 2011), the model’s theoretical verification is still undergoing. For example, Wanzer et al. (2010), who proposed the theory, only investigated the relation between teacher humour and student motivation, but did not test the other mediating sub-constructs proposed by the theory. Since then, many researchers have worked to determine potential influencing factors in the model: for instance, Bieg and Dresel (2018) individuated instructional dimensions (e.g. teacher care) as a mediator. Moreover, according to the author of this review, other plausible moderating variables for the IHP theory could be found in humour research literature (e.g. method of humour delivery (Tsakona, 2009)). In summary, to improve validity, the IHP theory should be updated by comprehensive testing on other potentially lurking moderating variables that might alter the learning process outcome. 

Additionally, another note to the conclusion is that the majority of studies analysed, except for Çelik and Gündoğdu (2016), use undergraduate students as their sample population. Unfortunately, this is the case for the majority of recent research on humour and academic learning, and it is a trend that reflects a wider sampling bias in psychological research (Hanel & Vione, 2016). This factor poses an external and construct validity threat to the findings, since tertiary education learning experience is different from primary and secondary education, which are largely under-studied. For this reason, further research on different age-groups is necessary to specify the unique effects of humour on age-specific academic learning.

Furthermore, the IHP theory posits that all emotional and cognitive responses to humour analysed in this review are modulated by the student’s appraisal of the humorous message as appropriate or inappropriate. Unfortunately, probably due to humour’s multidimensional nature as a construct, no study analysed the variable of appropriateness in this review. For this reason, support for the IHP theory can been concluded to be provisional. Further research investigating IHP theory sub-constructs along with the variable of humour-appropriateness is needed to confer full support to the theory.

In conclusion, the knowledge that humour has a mixed but generally positive effect on academic learning could be considered a cautious starting point for further research aimed at informing more effective pedagogical methodologies. In other words, there is promising evidence that, as Garner (2006) humorously observed, when properly used, “the ‘ha ha’ of humour in the classroom may contribute to the ‘aha’ of learning from the student.”.